How Power and Identity Changed in Late Medieval Spain
The Capitulation of Granada, 1492, by Francisco Pradilla y Ortiz (1848 – 1921).
The word Convivencia often brings to mind an idealized vision of medieval Spain, where Christians, Jews, and Muslims lived together in harmony. While modern historians have challenged this romantic image, it remains a useful starting point for understanding one of Europe’s major historical shifts: the move from a diverse society to a centralized, Catholic monarchy under Ferdinand and Isabella in the late 1400s. This transformation wasn't sudden or inevitable—it was the product of long-standing tensions, political ambitions, and changing religious ideas.
Rethinking Convivencia
Between the 8th and 13th centuries, especially in Muslim-ruled Al-Andalus, people of different faiths often lived side by side. But as historian David Nirenberg has shown, this coexistence was fragile and marked by episodes of violence and exclusion. It was often a matter of practicality, not tolerance. Rather than seeing Convivencia as a golden age that abruptly ended, it's more accurate to view it as a delicate balance that slowly unraveled.
The Reconquista and Christian Identity
The centuries-long Christian reconquest of Iberia—the Reconquista—was more than just military. It helped shape a Christian identity that saw the land as rightfully Christian, reclaimed from Muslim rule. By 1492, with the fall of Granada, this idea had deeply taken root. Historian Joseph Pérez argues that Ferdinand and Isabella saw religious unity as essential to national unity. So, taking Granada was both a political and spiritual mission.
Building a Centralized Catholic State
To strengthen their rule, the Catholic Monarchs reduced the power of nobles and the Church, building a more centralized state. They created new institutions like a standing army, royal courts, and a uniform tax system. Religious conformity became part of this state-building. The Spanish Inquisition, founded in 1478, was less about Church control and more about royal authority. It targeted not just religious heresy, but political dissent as well.
Economic Pressures and Social Tensions
Religious persecution was also tied to social and economic tensions. Jewish communities often held key roles in finance and medicine, causing resentment. The anti-Jewish violence of 1391, and later forced conversions, reflected not only religious hostility but also economic rivalry. Many converted Jews, or conversos, were still viewed with suspicion. The idea of limpieza de sangre (purity of blood) emerged to justify discrimination based on ancestry.
These tensions set the stage for the expulsion of Jews in 1492 and, later, the forced conversions and persecution of Muslims. These acts weren’t just religious—they were also driven by efforts to consolidate power and control.
Religion and National Ambition
Ferdinand and Isabella’s vision wasn’t just inward-looking. Influenced by crusading ideas and apocalyptic hopes, they saw their reign as part of a divine mission. As Brian Catlos notes, 1492 wasn’t just the year Granada fell—it was also the year Columbus sailed west, launching Spain into global expansion. Religious intolerance, then, wasn’t only about purging Spain—it was also about projecting Spanish Catholicism onto the world stage.
Conclusion
The move from religious coexistence to Catholic authoritarianism in Spain was the result of many intertwined forces: war, politics, economic pressure, and religious ideology. The Catholic Monarchs didn’t invent intolerance, but they institutionalized it on a massive scale. By seeing this transformation as part of a long historical arc, we better understand how faith, power, and identity shaped modern Spain.
Further Reading:
Brian A. Catlos, Kingdoms of Faith: A New History of Islamic Spain (2018)
David Nirenberg, Communities of Violence: Persecution of Minorities in the Middle Ages (1996)
Joseph Pérez, The Spanish Inquisition: A History (2005)
Henry Kamen, Spain, 1469–1714: A Society of Conflict (1983)
Benzion Netanyahu, The Origins of the Inquisition in Fifteenth Century Spain (1995)
Angus Mackay, Spain in the Middle Ages: From Frontier to Empire, 1000–1500 (1977)