An autos-da-fé in the Town of San Bartolomé Otzolotepec.
The Inquisition refers to a series of institutions within the Roman Catholic Church that were established to combat heresy, enforce religious orthodoxy, and preserve the unity of Christian belief—often through investigation, interrogation, and punishment. While the term commonly evokes images of torture, censorship, and burning at the stake, the reality is more nuanced. The Inquisition was not a single entity but a group of related systems that operated over several centuries and across different regions, including the Medieval Inquisition, the Spanish Inquisition, the Portuguese Inquisition, and the Roman Inquisition. Each reflected the religious, political, and cultural concerns of its time. Initially conceived as a way to protect the faith and guide errant believers back to the Church, the Inquisition gradually became an instrument of state and ecclesiastical power—shaping not only theology but also national identity, colonial control, and intellectual life in early modern Europe. Understanding its origins, methods, and legacy provides valuable insight into the complex relationship between religion, authority, and society in Western history.
1. The Medieval Inquisition (12th–13th Centuries)
The Inquisition began in the 12th century as a response to growing religious movements that the Church saw as dangerous, like the Cathars in France and the Waldensians in Italy. These groups criticized the Church’s wealth and authority. At first, local bishops tried to stop them, but with little success.
In 1231, Pope Gregory IX created a system of special church courts led by Dominican and Franciscan friars. These inquisitors had the authority to investigate and judge suspected heretics. The accused were often questioned, sometimes tortured, and could be forced to confess. If they refused to repent, they might be handed over to secular rulers for punishment, which could include execution (Peters, 1989).
2. The Spanish Inquisition (1478–1834)
The Spanish Inquisition was created by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella in 1478. Unlike the earlier Inquisition, it was controlled by the monarchy, not the Pope. Its main goal was to test the faith of conversos—Jews and Muslims who had converted to Christianity but were suspected of secretly practicing their old religions.
In 1492, the same year Spain conquered the last Muslim kingdom (Granada), all Jews were ordered to leave the country unless they converted. Later, Muslims faced the same choice. The Inquisition held public trials called autos-da-fé, where punishments were announced, sometimes including execution by burning.
Though the Inquisition did use torture and harsh methods, modern historians like Henry Kamen argue that it was more controlled than many secular courts of the time (Kamen, 1998). Still, it created fear and limited freedom of thought, especially by censoring books and ideas.
3. The Portuguese Inquisition (1536–1821)
Inspired by Spain, Portugal started its own Inquisition in 1536. Like in Spain, it focused first on converted Jews, and later expanded to include Protestants and people influenced by Enlightenment ideas. It also operated in colonies like Brazil, making it part of a global system of religious control (Bethencourt, 2009).
4. The Roman Inquisition (1542–c. 1900)
The Roman Inquisition was set up in 1542 by Pope Paul III to fight Protestant ideas during the Counter-Reformation. It focused on keeping Catholic teachings pure and worked mainly in Italy and the Papal States. It is most famous for the 1633 trial of Galileo Galilei, who was forced to renounce his support for the idea that the Earth moves around the sun (Blackwell, 1991).
The Roman Inquisition lasted the longest. It became less active over time and was eventually renamed the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, which still exists today as the body that oversees Catholic doctrine.
5. Legacy and Lessons
Over the centuries, the Inquisition became a symbol of religious intolerance and abuse of power. Writers during the Reformation and Enlightenment used it as proof of the dangers of Church control over people's beliefs. While some myths about the Inquisition (like wildly exaggerated execution numbers) have been debunked, it is still remembered as a system that suppressed freedom and persecuted minorities.
Historians today, like Edward Peters and Henry Kamen, encourage us to understand the Inquisition in its historical context. It wasn’t unique for using torture or punishing heresy—but it did contribute to a lasting climate of fear and censorship in countries like Spain and Portugal.
Further reading:
Bethencourt, Francisco. The Inquisition: A Global History, 1478–1834. Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Blackwell, Richard J. Galileo, Bellarmine, and the Bible. University of Notre Dame Press, 1991.
Kamen, Henry. The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision. Yale University Press, 1998.
Peters, Edward. Inquisition. University of California Press, 1989.
The burning at the stake of Anneken Hendriks/Anna Hendriks, a Frisian Anabaptist, on the Dam in Amsterdam in 1571, reportedly with gunpowder in her mouth, by Jan Luyken (1649 –1712).